Metacognition Essay Example For Students

Metacognition Essay Metacognition has been defined as having knowledge (cognition) and having understanding, control over, and appropriate use of that knowledge (Tei and Stewart; as cited by Collins, 1994, p. 2). Wellman (as cited by Berk, 1997) refers to metacognitive knowledge as being made up of four interrelated component : knowledge of self, task, strategies and interaction. The conscious control over and use of these knowledge components emerges through the application of metacognitive skills (or strategies), which include all those methods learners employ to think, study and solve problems (Slavin, 1997). Unlike some other areas of child development, there is no one theorist credited as heralding and mastering thought on metacognitive development. Rather there have been numerous researchers who have made considerable contributions towards a better understanding of how students study strategies change as they become older. In their study of students from fifth grade through tertiary education, Fleming et al. (1993) found a developmental trend for increasing differentiation of lower-level (rote memory) strategies and high-level (being-based and self-regulatory) strategies during the high school and university years. Flavell (as cited by Warton, 1998) attributes much of this differentiation to greater metacognitive knowledge of self and task, in that as students mature they are far more accurate in estimating their memory capacity (or changing their strategies and predictions for the next time of they over-estimated). They are also likely to learn the gist of the material (the general id ea) as opposed to verbatim memory input, which is common to children up to eight years of age. Rafoth, Leal and Defabo (1993) also argue that as students develop they are less likely to use rehearsal as a study routine and more likely to acquire sophisticated learning strategies (p.26) such as semantic organisation of material, self-testing and elaboration Creating visual or verbal connections that add meaning to material (Rafoth et al, 1993, p.25). With specific attention to self-testing, Loraner (1994) argues that more mature students are more efficient monitors of their learning, and therefore more active, purposeful and flexible in their strategy use. Hagan, Reed, Wicker, Schallert and Wiehe (1992), have similarly noted the developmental nature of metacognition and study strategies. However, they are cautious not to underrate the considerable importance of effective influences on study activities and their efficacy, highlighting that:The psychological process of being immersed , or involved in what one is studying has an important relationship to the study outcome goals a nd affect that either promote or hinder involvement may influence a students orientation toward studying (for example, the decision to comprehend vs. memorise). (p. 2). Key insights have been made into the relationship between development and study activities, with very distinct changes noted as students mature (Murray-Harvey Keeves, 1994). While much research has also focused on particular age or schooling level groups with regards to metacognitive, and in particular, study skills strategies for example, Hermans (1996) study of undergraduate multiple choice test strategies, and Williams (1997) research into the study strategies of rural at-risk high school students. The aim of the present study was to explore the relationship between development and study strategies, particularly changes that occur between the senior school years and studies at university. Specifically this study focused on how students prepare for a test, monitor and review their progress and how dependent this monitoring and awareness of ones cognition is affected by age or subject area. In line with the reported research it is hypothesized that a university student will make greater use of meaning based and self regulatory study skills than senior high school students, who have less knowledge about the own learning, across all subject areas. Two males participated in the study. One attends a Catholic High School in a large country town whilst the other attended a Catholic High School in a small Capital city. They are both from similar socio-economic backgrounds. Michael (pseudonym) is 18 years of age and studying for his HSC and achieving above average results. John (pseudonym) is 22 years of age and studying for a Masters degree in Chiropractic Science. He achieves well above average results in his university studies. Although the results John has achieved in his academic career are better it is Michael who comes from a more scholarly background. Due to the striking similarities between the two subjects in gender, schooling institutions and socio-economic status the two main variables were development and personality differences. The only materials used in the study were a tape recorder for recording the subjects responses to the researchers questions (see Appendix 1 and 2), and a pen and paper for recording non-verbal responses. A case study was used to gain qualitative research into the relationship between developmental and study variables in two individuals. After consideration of past research on development and metacognition, subjects were chosen to examine the relevant points of equivalence and contrast between a late high school students and a university students study strategies. Both the subjects were well known to the researcher and as such they were spoken with casually regarding their participation in the study. They were informed about the purpose and nature of the study and questions they would b required to answer. They both consented to participate and signed the consent forms (Appendix 3 and 4). A suitable time for interviewing the subjects was arranged. When the interview started the tape recorder was turned on and the subjects were then questioned regarding their academic careers. A number of questions were posed to investigate their performance on academic tests or exams and their preparation for them. Table 1: Comparison between a university students and a school students responses on study skills. History: Open Book Test (Cheat Sheet) vs EssaysOrthopaedics: True / False vs Essays or Short AnswerHistory: Read textbook. Summarize notesMaths: Read. Learn formulas. Do practice questions. Orthopaedics: True / False Read notes. Doesnt try to memorizeShort Answer Rewrite. Summarize. Elaborate to make meaning. ReadChiropractic Skills: Read. Practice. Does subject use different strategies for different types of exams?Have subjects study strategies changed over time?Does subject recognize the role of environment and motivation on study?Does subject have the ability to self-regulate?Reasonable. Does practice questions for maths but not for interpretative subjects. Excellent varies strategies according to progress, time constraints, exam type and subject. How does subject deal with problems in exams?Leave it and come back if there is time. Leaves it and comes back. Knows own recognition patterns (eg if I know it Ill recognize it). Uses other questions as a springboard for thinking about the Question. Table 1 highlights the significant differences and similarities between the two subjects metacognitive abilities. Johns responses to questions were far more detailed than were Michaels. Michael required far more prompting and gave less precise answers. John on the other hand is well aware of his study strategies and was able and willing to discuss them. Michael responded that he applied the same study skills to groups of subjects regardless of the examination type whereas John recognized that he studied differently for different exam formats. He said that psychologically or perhaps unconsciously he recognizes the difference in the way he studied for a True / False test as opposed to a test which required him to write his own responses. Differing again was the way in which John prepared for a practical examination. Each of the subjects replied that for theoretical and to some extent Johns practical, exams , they read over and summarized their notes and / or their textbooks. Each of them found this process of rewriting and rereading their notes to be the most beneficial to their study. The concept for Johns practical exam was the same, to read the notes and then practise them regularly. Both subjects recognized the role of motivation and environment on their study. Each was aware that they found it difficult to study when there were distracting factors around, such as Michaels example of food, or Johns example of noise. John is far more able to change the way he studies as exams come closer and recognizes the need to do so. He has a good ability to self-regulate in that he is able to reasonably confidently predict his results in examinations. Hamlet: Growing Pains EssayR:Thats great! Thanks for your help!Transcript of Researchers Questions and Johns ResponsesR:For my studies in education I am doing some research into study skills. There are no right or wrong answers and all the data will remain completely confidential. You can stop the interview at any time. Okay?R:You dont mind if I tape record the interview?R:Can you think about an exam you have had recently for me?R:How did you actually study for it?J:Well .. I went through all my lectures to start with and in the first few weeks when I wasnt so busy I came home and rewrote my notes. I use blue and red pen to highlight the important facts. So I rewrote all my notes and then when it came closer to the date I started writing them onto cue cards so I had all the salient points on the cue cards. So I basically keep putting them onto cue cards and once I have finished all my exam notes and yeh Ive got it all on cue cards and I keep reading them. And every time I read the m I remember some more and more and so I take those cue cards out and dont read them again and eventually Im left with 10 or so cue cards. I go through them and decide if they are likely to be in the exam questions and I have quite mastered it and I keep reading through them until Im ready to sit for the exam. R:Okay, so how do you actually go about actually remembering the information?J:Like I said if Ive got time I like to rewrite my notes but that takes a lot of time. Closer to the date I stop that and just keep reading and putting them onto cue cards .. um.. and basically keep reading and .. reading my lecture notes .. I go through the text book and some past paper.. and I prepare my lecture notes and I try and expand on them so I can understand what I am going to have to write about. R:So you dont actually have any tricks for remembering the stuff? You dont make patterns out of the words or anything like that?J:With Orthopaedics its basically a lot of facts and its just remembering and rewriting the facts and sometimes I might use a pneumonic but its not that easy to use a pneumonic because basically, you know A patient presents with. And youve got to know what the facts are. R:Okay can you think of another exam you have had recently?R:Okay. So did you have to prepare for it differently?J:So it was a practical exam. It wasnt a theory exam. Apart from reading lecture notes it was basically practising with friends. R:How to you manage to remember practical information as opposed to the theoretical information?J:I think I read somewhere that it takes two weeks to form a ingrain so basically we get together twice a week and draw a name out of a hat and try and remember the name and the name gives you a clue and youve got to remember all your contacts are and youve just got to keep practising. Yeh basically you see that name of the adjustment and your brains got to think okay and just before you do the adjustment take a deep breath and think of all the things you have gone through with your friends. And thinking what are the important points and hopefully you have done enough practice that it becomes automated. R:Um.. Do you think motivation affects your ability to study?J:Definitely, I think doing 10 or so Masters subjects if you are not motivated I think it becomes tough to sit there and rewrite your lecture notes and to try to remember so many facts. Motivation plays a big part. R:Do you think there is anything else that affects your study?J:Definitely the environment you are studying in and how you are feeling, lack of sleep, I suppose relationships all play a partR:Right. In an exam if you get stuck on a questions what do you do?J:Um, it all depends on if it is a theory or a practical. If it is say a theory question Ill think about it but Ill only think about it for say 30 secs cause if I know it Ill know t straight away. So if Im in a theory Ill just leave it and if Im doing another question and I think of something that answers the question I have left Ill come back to it but basically Ill leave it and try to get marks elsewhere and come back to the question. In a practical exam I suppose try and reread the question take a deep breath and you should know it and hopefully it will come back to you and if it doesnt ask the examiner if I can come back to it and hopefully it come back to me. R:Do you think there is anything that happens in an exam that reminds you of anything that you have forgotten? You know do you think there is anything .. Oh.. I was studying that on a Wednesday after.. Do you try and make a process of your study so that you can try and remember it?J:Not so much days but I read my notes a few times and I think I can almost pinpoint what lecture it was at, who gave the lecture and what his emphasis was. Sometime I can remember what cue card it was on and I try to visualize what I was remembering. Sometimes it is difficult when youve got fact after fact but at least if you cant remember the whole of it you can get some marks. R:Right okay. Are you generally pleased with the results you get?J:Practical more so than theory. Im one of the only ones who hasnt failed a practical station so Im pretty happy with that. Theory sometimes I do really well other times not so well. R:If in one theory subject you have different sorts of exams say multiple choice versus essays. Do you prepare differently?J:Yeh. We have some True / False exams and you know.. with them you think that you dont actually have to remember it .. psychologically.. you just think that you will have to recognize it .. so you dont tend to study it as well. Whereas with other sorts of tests you know you have to know the facts so you actually remember them. R:Well thats it! Thanks for your help!Berk, L.E. (1997). Child Development. (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Collins, N.D. (1994). Metacognition and Reading to Learn. (Report No. EDO-CS-94-09). Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communication, Bloomington, in Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 376-427)Fleming, S.P., Cornwell, J.M., et al. (1993, April). Developmental Changes in the Factor Structure of a A Self-Report Measure of Study Activities. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Atlanta, GA. Hagan, A.S., Reed, J.H., et al. (1192, April). Motivational and Cognitive Factors Affecring Involvement in Goal Pursuit: A Reconfirmation of Extension of Research. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association , San Francisco, CA. Murray-Harvey ; Keeves, J.P. (1994, April). Students Learning Processes and Progress in Higher Education. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA. Rafoth, M.A., Leal, L. De Fabo, L. (1993). Strategies for Learning and Remembering: Study Skills Across the Curriculum Washington, DC: National Education Association. Slavin, R.E. (1997). Educational Psychology : Theory and Practice. (5th ed.). Boston: Alleyn and Bacon. Warton, P. (1999). Metacognition. Lecture presented at Macquarie University, Sydney. Williams, J.E. (1995, April). Use of Learning and Study Skills among Students Differing in Self-Regulated Learning Efficacy. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA. Williams, J.E. (1996, April). Promoting Rural Students Academic Achievements: An Examination of Self-Regulated Learning Strategies. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, NY. Williams, J.E. (1997, March). Relating Affective and Cognitive Study Strategies to Self-Regulated Learning for Rural At-Risk Students. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Assocation, Chicago, IL. Bibliography: